Background
The landscape of fear is a driving topic in ecological studies that aims to explain large-scale, predator-prey interactions. An underlying assumption of this concept is that prey species have both the opportunity and ability to learn about predation risk, and alter their behavior accordingly (Laundre et al. 2010). While several studies examine fear in prey and their resultant alterations of their spatial habitat to avoid predator interactions (Laundre et al. 2001, Gude et al. 2006, Palmer et al. 2017,), few studies examine the temporal alteration of prey behavior (Lima and Bednekoff 1999, Schmidt and Kuijiper 2015). My study seeks to explore both spatial and temporal alteration of habitat use by a common prey species, white-tailed deer, in response to a multi-predator environment via a high intensity camera sampling strategy. White-tailed deer are typically noctural and crepuscular in their behavior, as are wolves (Canis lupus), coyotes (Canis latrans), and black bears (Ursus americanus). At a relatively small spatial scale with prey and multiple predators present, it follows that prey will alter their use of the landscape not only spatially but temporally as well (Sih et al. 1992).
Due to a lack of information regarding white-tailed deer responses to a host of predators in the context of the landscape of fear, my project seeks to better understand these interactions and fill these research gaps. Having a thorough understanding of abundant species and their ecological interactions aids the fulfillment of future research of other (perhaps less common and more complex) phenomena. However, these future studies cannot be accomplished if we lack an understanding of common ecological interactions first.
Due to a lack of information regarding white-tailed deer responses to a host of predators in the context of the landscape of fear, my project seeks to better understand these interactions and fill these research gaps. Having a thorough understanding of abundant species and their ecological interactions aids the fulfillment of future research of other (perhaps less common and more complex) phenomena. However, these future studies cannot be accomplished if we lack an understanding of common ecological interactions first.
Research Objectives
Given that hundreds of studies are based on the assumption that predator presence, or the perceived risk of predator presence, is a driving factor in prey spacing across the landscape, naturally, prey temporal reponses should be researched as thoroughly as spatial responses have been thus far. I will examine the temporal relationship of white-tailed deer activity relative to predator activity via a high-intensity camera study in Alberta's northeastern boreal. My question that follows: are white-tailed deer in these sampled regions altering their temporal and spatial habitat use to avoid multiple predators?
Expected Results
In a comparison of camera hits between predators and white-tailed deer at the camera level, I expect that the timing and frequency of white-tailed deer hits (Figure 1) will vary in response to predator hits (Figure 2). In addition, I expect that if white-tailed deer are actively avoiding predators, they will have very little spatial and temporal overlap relative to individual cameras. If these results are supported, this relationship would provide evidence for the importance of temporal behavioral changes of prey in reponse to predator presence. This could contribute to a better understanding of a host of predator-prey, behavioral, and landscape ecology topics.
In addition to spatial and temporal predator-prey occurrences, there are several other factors that may influence this trade-off of food and safety by prey. These variables are clearly defined in a recent review that includes considering species' life history traits, inter- and intra-specific competition, as well as individual variation, that all play a role in the landscape of fear (Bleicher 2017). Given that assessing these variables was beyond the scope of my study, it is possible that some or all of these interactions are occurring, thus minimizing the influence of time and space on white-tailed deer habitat use in relation to predators. However, these additional factors do not negate the need for understanding the temporal and spatial distributions of predator and prey in the boreal ecosystem. This gap in knowledge, once filled, has the potential to contribute to more complex studies of the landscape of fear, not only in the boreal, but across multiple ecosystems.
In addition to spatial and temporal predator-prey occurrences, there are several other factors that may influence this trade-off of food and safety by prey. These variables are clearly defined in a recent review that includes considering species' life history traits, inter- and intra-specific competition, as well as individual variation, that all play a role in the landscape of fear (Bleicher 2017). Given that assessing these variables was beyond the scope of my study, it is possible that some or all of these interactions are occurring, thus minimizing the influence of time and space on white-tailed deer habitat use in relation to predators. However, these additional factors do not negate the need for understanding the temporal and spatial distributions of predator and prey in the boreal ecosystem. This gap in knowledge, once filled, has the potential to contribute to more complex studies of the landscape of fear, not only in the boreal, but across multiple ecosystems.
Figure 1. Average hourly photo hits of white-tailed deer (prey) during September-October 2016.
|
Figure 2. Average hourly photo hits of black bear, coyotes, and wolves (predators) during September-October 2016.
|